The Rise of African-Americans from 1865 to 2012, Their...

Running Head: The Rise of African- Americans From 1865 To 2012, Their Struggles To Become Free Americans THE RISE OF AFRICAN-AMERICANS FROM 1865 TO 2012, THEIR STRUGGLES TO BECOME FREE AMERICANS Brenda Maynard HIS204: American History Since 1865 (GSN1241A) Instructor: Tracy Samperio Ashford University October29, 2012 The Rise of African- Americans The Rise of African- Americans From 1865 To 2012, Their Struggles To Become Free Americans After the Civil War African-American expected to have their freedom, but this was not really the case. Even though the approval of the 13th Amendment freed them from their Southern masters, they were still far from being free. The 13th amendment to the United States Constitution provides that†¦show more content†¦Most northern white people and black people lived in different neighborhoods and attended different schools. This segregation resulted from African Americans resided in distinctive neighborhoods, because of low incomes well as wanting to live near other African Americans. It also caused them to be isolated within the cities and towns they lived in. Many blacks separated themselves not as a matter of choice or custom. Landlords were not fond of renting to black people and often The Rise of African- Americans turned them away. Realtors directed blacks away from white neighborhoods. Often municipal ordinances kept blacks out of white areas. Blacks were prevented from moving freely from town to town. They also could not be caught out at night without an explicit reason. Organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan, The White Brotherhood, the Red Shirts, and Knights of the White Camelia generated fear and oppression within the black community. â€Å"Klan members burned black homes, schools and churches as a reminder that blacks should not challenge white supremacy (POWELL, 2008, Mar 09). These organizations prevented Blacks from voting. Because state laws made it illegal for Blacks to own gun, blacks had no way to defend themselves. Klan members tended gang up on their victims. Because of the Ku Klux Klan and others like them, African Americans feared for their lives on a daily bases. In 1871 Congress passed the Force Bill, giving the federal governmentShow MoreR elatedReconstruction Document Analysis1256 Words   |  6 PagesDr. Wheeler HIS 251 26 November 2012 Document Analysis: â€Å"Reconstruction: Clashing Dreams and Realities, 1865-1868† The Civil War brought with it destruction in the South, over 600,000 fatalities, economic devastation, and a nation hanging together by the thread of the hopes of those who believed that the nation of Washington would not â€Å"perish from the earth.† Those living in the losing side had to face the harsh realities that their lives would never be the same, both for the white slave ownersRead MoreEssay about Individualism in American History1470 Words   |  6 PagesThe Struggle to Be Unique Do you stand alone as a unique and special individual? Since the beginning of American history there have been struggles for individualism. The American Revolution, the American Civil War, and the separation from family life are all examples of individualism in American history. Individualism is an American paradigm designed by the modern societal structure that is an altered idea of the foundation by immigrants. In today’s society the struggle for individualism is moreRead MoreA History of African Americans after Reconstruction Essay2543 Words   |  11 PagesHistory of African Americans after Reconstruction During reconstruction the United States was divided on social issues, presidential campaigns were won and loss on these issues during this period. The struggle for development of African Americans and how they initiated change in political, economic, educational, and social conditions to shape their future and that of the United States. (Dixon, 2000) The South’s attempts to recover from the Civil war included determining what to do with newly freedRead MoreThe Effects of Incarceration Discrimination in the United States for African American Men2898 Words   |  12 Pagesprogression within society is a trend that engulfs African American men constantly in the American society. There is a continuous struggle to break the persistent mold. Although many feel that the United States has overcome its racist history, the legacies of slavery and racism still affect our policies and practices today. Of the nearly 2.1 million adult men and women imprisoned in the United States, roughly 70% are persons of color (Minton, 2012). Within the criminal justice system, people of colorRead MoreThe Broken Promise of Reconstruction the Need for Restitution5574 Words   |  23 PagesRESTITUTION The Civil War is the most widely written about event in American history and Reconstruction is the most mis-understood and least appreciated subject within this wider issue. Most people would prefer to escape into the heroic exploits of the battles that were fought than deal with the difficult social problems that the former enslaved population had to deal with. I am offering this essay since I believe that the African-Americans have been done a great disservice by the Nation. As a people theyRead MoreASAM 5 Notes Essay6590 Words   |  27 Pagescore as. Three parts Minority Literature Minority literature The concept of minority has been central to the very founding of American life and government Metaphors of minorities Invisibility : lock of recognition Notion of otherness: radical difference WEB Dubois, the souls of Black Folk (1903) Historian and writer First African American to receive PhD from Harvard Two primary ideas :The problem of the 20th century is the problem of the color line. Double consciousness Double consciousness Read MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesstrategic issues of speciï ¬ c organisations in much greater depth – and often providing ‘solutions’ to some of the problems or difï ¬ culties identiï ¬ ed in the case. There are also over 33 classic cases on the Companion Website. These are a selection of cases from recent editions of the book which remain relevant for teaching. The case studies are intended to serve as a basis for class discussion and not as an illustration of either good or bad management practice. They are not intended to be a comprehensive

Animal Farm And Fahrenheit 451 - 1662 Words

Everything has an image. It varies depending on the figure or objects what this image might represent, whether it is something positive or negative, but nevertheless, every single thing has one. But what is an image? A common misconception is that image only pertains to the outward appearance of a particular object or individual, where in actuality, they depict certain ideas that are considerably more elaborate than just its physical attributes. Throughout all three texts, the competence of how authority figures are characterized, aids in forming people’s perceptions which has a compelling influence on who attains ascendency. In the allegorical novella, Animal Farm by George Orwell, it conveys Orwell s perspective regarding communism†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬ËœIt s a rich people s party.’ ‘Rich people go to Heaven too,’ said the girl, who studied religion at school. ‘Get away with Heaven,’ said the mother. ‘I’m going beca use I’ve been invited,’ she said. ‘And I’ve been invited because Luciana is my friend. So there.’ ‘Ah yes, your friend, her mother grumbled. She paused. Listen, Rosaura, she said at last. ‘That one’s not your friend. You know what you are to them? The maid’s daughter, that’s what.’† (Heker 1) This quote indicates the difference of wealth and superiority between Rosaura and Luciana. Even though Rosaura did not recognize it, Rosaura’s mother mentions â€Å"rich people’s party†, indicating how she could differentiate how Luciana associates in a higher social class than that of Rosaura. Due to Rosaura’s circumstances of poverty, she was deluded by Luciana, whose background is comprised of fortune and privilege, the intention of her invite. This contrast among an individual such as Luciana, who maintains a higher position within the hierarchy of wealth, dominate as they are prosperous and is considered to be superior to those who are not. Comparatively, in the denouement of Animal Farm, the pigs dine accompanied humans, one of which includes Mr. Pilkington where he delivers his congratulations: â€Å"‘If you have your lower animals to contend with,’ he said, ‘we have our lower classes!’†(Orwell 41). This congratulati on explicitly confirms the scheme of theShow MoreRelatedAnimal Farm And Fahrenheit 4511020 Words   |  5 PagesThe Burning Truth Both Animal Farm and Fahrenheit 451 are fictional novels in which a dystopian society exists. These societies were both created by a â€Å"central government†. When citizens of these societies fail to stand up and protect their rights, authority figures will keep increasing their level of aggressiveness until it ruptures the society. When the authorities in these novels abuse their power, it fractures the society and greatly increases corruption. Orwell and Bradbury bothRead MoreInnocence and Oppressiveness in Fahrenheit 451 and Animal Farm853 Words   |  4 Pagesbook Fahrenheit 451 and the book Animal Farm characters who are unaware of their surroundings allow for characters such as Beatty, Mr. Jones, and Napoleon to take over. Often times it is necessary for an oppressive power to be forceful in order to take over. Hitler is a leader who used force to take over the German people. In the case of both of these books the naà ¯vetà © groups of people are used for their ignorance for the benefit of the leaders, and physical power is not required. Animal Farm andRead MoreAnimal Farm And Fahrenheit 451 Literary Analysis811 Words   |  4 Pagesdiscriminated against. Again this theme of â€Å"the struggle for freedom† is shown in the book Animal Farm by George Orwell, and Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury. In both of these novels the characters struggle to gain their freedom from the restrictions society place d on them. Freedom is only attained when it is fought for as shown in â€Å"I Have a Dream†, Fahrenheit 451, and Animal Farm. In the novel, Fahrenheit 451, Montag struggles for freedom despite societys restrictions. This is demonstrated when MontagRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Fahrenheit 451 1413 Words   |  6 PagesAnimal Farm and Fahrenheit 451 Book-burning is the first thing that is explained about this future based society of Fahrenheit 451. Burning books is the obliteration of the single thought on paper or in one word- censorship. Books are considered evil because they make people question and think. All intellectual curiosity and thirst for knowledge must be quelled for the good of the state — for the good of conformity. Without ideas, everyone conforms, and as a result, everyone should be happy. WhenRead MoreThe Doctrine Of The Roman Catholic Church1184 Words   |  5 Pagesof cases where the trust conferred onto authority was abused. During the fifteenth century, Galileo questioned the roman catholic church. Martin Luther also questioned the Catholic church in the sixteenth century, and in George Orwell s Animal Farm, the animals questioned their human masters. During the fifteenth century, the Catholic church was the authority on scientific knowledge. The Catholic church taught geocentrism, the belief that the sun revolves around the earth. Galileo, an Italian scientistRead MoreFahrenheit 451: the Firemen851 Words   |  4 Pagesan era that plagued the minds of Americans with fears of atomic war and Cold War conspiracies, provides an appropriate setting for the foundation of novels protesting government policies. Animal Farm, 1984, and other similar satires of the time period demand government reform. But Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 staunchly contrasts these other writings; rather than presenting some omniscient tale admonishing its audience of the dangers of government hierarchy, Bradbury uses satire to criticize primarilyRead MoreEssay On Ray Bradbury1154 Words   |  5 Pages Who is Ray Bradbury? Well many of you probably already know who he is. He is an author who wrote many good books such as Fahrenheit 451, The Martian C hronicles, The Illustrated Man, and The October Country. I have read his book Fahrenheit 451 and it was a spectacular piece of art. In this paper you will learn more about this legendary author named Ray Bradbury. Ray bradbury was born August 22nd, 1920 in Waukegan Illinois. He died June 5th, 2012 in Los Angeles California at the age of 91. Read MoreAnalysis Of The Book Fahrenheit 451 Homework Questions 980 Words   |  4 PagesEve Cao Futagaki English Honors 1 4 March 2016 Fahrenheit 451 Homework Questions Part 1 1. I think Bradbury chose the symbols the phoenix and the salamander because they are both animals associated with fire, a theme in the book. in the book the salamander symbolizes the firemen who burned houses that owned books by starting fires. A salamander is able to survive fires. The phoenix represents the â€Å"rebirth† of society. The society began from settings book on fire to people filled with curiosityRead MoreViolence And Destruction By Ray Bradbury1082 Words   |  5 Pagesobsessed and infatuated with violence. Whether it be in action movies, or in studies about how harmful it is, we can t stop thinking about it. Destruction is one of the significant issues impacting us today. Ray Bradbury starts his dystopian novel, Fahrenheit 451, with the following quote, â€Å"It was a special pleasure to see things eaten, to see things blackened and changed. With the brass nozzle in his fists, with this great python spitting its venomous kerosene upon the world, the blood pounded in hisRead MoreEssay about The Perpetual Battle Against Censorship3071 Words   |  13 Pages(176) says Ray Bradbury when explaining the reason he wrote Fahrenheit 451. Bradbury at the time was upset about condensed books, or books which had been simplified for easier reading. Luckily, this fad seems to have passed. However, he was also upset about people who wrote asking him to change the role of women or African-Americans to make them more or less dominant in some of his works. One of the major themes in Fahrenheit 451 was just that; a society where everyone got what they wished

Human Development and Life Transition †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Human Development and Life Transition. Answer: Human Development is the process of peoples evolution through enhancement of knowledge, expansion of their capabilities through wide array of choices along with the increase in freedom through fulfillment of human rights. Life transition is usually the life changing event which causes people to take a closer look into the present state of being and move ahead towards becoming a transformed individual for bringing in the desired changes. The purpose of the essay is to consider some of the important aspects of cognitive and social development, the factors influencing cognitive and social development, finally look into the nursing practices followed for children between the age of 2-5 years by understanding the requirements. In the case study, Jack is 3 years old, having speech problems and not toilet trained. The essay concludes that proper care and nurture from parents is essential for the growth and development of children. The importance of connecting with children of similar age gr oup should be stressed upon for allowing them to communicate and avoid any speech problem (Barac et.al., 2015). Piagetrefers to the cognitive development which occurs between ages 2 and 5, as thepreoperational stage.In this stage, children increase their use of language and other symbols, their imitations of adult behaviors, and their play.He had also mentioned in this stage, the things which children are unable to do. By this he meant, reversible abilities of children through which they are able to add and subtract with the same set numbers, hence go back and forth. Cognitive development plays a crucial role in the overall development of a child. Cognition is nothing but the way people think, listen to others, learn and remember. In the case study, Jack is struggling with his speech, only speaking one or two words (Halle et.al., 2014). As far as the normative cognitive development is concerned, during these years, children identify different letters, colors and get into the habit of counting. When children attain the age between 2 and 5 years, they gradually understand what feelings are all a bout and the importance they carry in ones life. Generally 2 year olds can speak on an average about 50 words, whereas by the time children attain the age of 5, they may be aware of sufficient number of words through which they can converse on a regular basis and even share different stories, which capture their attention and create interest. Eriksons stage of social development for 2-5 year olds, reveals that children learn to be self-sufficient with regard to toileting, dressing and feeding. They can relate and interact with peers, whereas in the case study, Jack is lagging behind, as he is not yet toilet trained and blabber only one or two word sentences. Over the course of this phase, children tend to broaden their skills through play, explore and thereby engage, participate and cooperate with others. Role of parenting or peers is extremely critical for social development. Social development for children will be ideal when they take place through the guidance of parents and peer groups (Hammer et.al., 2014). Children aged within 2-5 years become more aware and have the ability to relate effectively with regard to social as well as emotional connect. When children are able to develop a level of understanding, express their emotions and slowly go ahead in understanding the emotions of others, they attain the skills whic h help them connect with family, peers and teachers. The increase in capacities of young children increase their competencies in understanding the importance of social interactions, help them to participate effectively in relationships and group activities, which ultimately makes way for seizing the benefits of social support, critical for greater human development and functioning. Providing care and support to the children aged between 2-5 years help them to get their emotions regulated, creates a sense of predictability, safety and responsiveness in the social environment (Hoffnung et.al., 2015). Well recognized faces would easily make children respond quicker to the instructions imparted for developing certain skills within them. In the given scenario, Jack has been admitted to day care, attending 10 hours in a week, is still unable to speak clearly and carry out the activities which children of his age can do pretty well. Stable and consistent relationships developed through mothers and relevant people, who the children would be able to relate with, do wonders to the confidence of the children and help in the rapid growth and development. Company of known people and being in the environment, where Jack had spent the first 3 years of his life, would have given him a sense of belonging and helped him to grasp the learnings imparted by family members in a comp rehensive manner. The more, children will be at ease when they are surrounded by known people. The environment and culture play significant roles to influence social and cognitive development among children. When children of same age groups mix with one another, they get influenced very easily, as they can connect to the peer groups much better than they would, with any other individual or group of individuals (Sansavini et.al., 2014). Vygotsky opined that language plays a major role in shaping thought. He claimed that cognitive skills originate from social relations and culture. Jack struggles with his speech and thus face problems in communicating with children of his age group, which has become a major concern for his mother Vanessa. This has a major impact on their overall growth and development as constant communication with like-minded people would allow them to gather knowledge and understanding of various aspects of life, also improve their ability to interact freely. Parents have different ways of conducting themselves in front of their children. They tackle different situations to the best of their abilities by following set patterns and cultures. Cultures refer to the type of behaviors one exhibits based on certain beliefs and traditions. Upbringing of children play significant roles in moulding them to behave in specific manners according to culture, traditions and values. The teachings imparted by parents help them to gain consciousness, learn new things and pave the way for an overall social and cognitive development. Nursing practice should be moulded as per the age requirements of children. Children aged 10-12 years, would require separate practices, which should be followed by nurses as compared to the practices which should be followed for the age group of 2-5 years. Jack is 3 years old, who would require special care and attention to arrest certain issues, that are giving trouble, not only to Jack but also to his mother, Vanessa. Proper planning regarding the health of the children, measuring weights on a regular basis, through which the diet plans should be made. Eriksons theory is directly related to the nursing care of children (Winsler et.al.,2014). Health maintenance visits in the community, provide opportunities to nurses to meet the childrens needs. On the other hand, Piagets theory is essential to pediatric nursing. He puts stress on the fact that the nurse must understand a childs thought process, in order to design meaningful and stimulating and appropriate teaching plans. The report concludes that human development and life transition play crucial roles for enhancing the well being of people. The case study referred to Jack, who is 3 years old but unable to speak with clarity and also not well trained in toilet. To bring about the much needed development in human beings and life transition, proper care and nurture from parents is of utmost importance. Social and cognitive development can take place only when children get the desired guidance and made to understand the importance of connecting with children of their age through communication. References Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., Sanchez, M. (2014). The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review.Early Childhood Research Quarterly,29(4), 699-714. Halle, T. G., Whittaker, J. V., Zepeda, M., Rothenberg, L., Anderson, R., Daneri, P., ... Buysse, V. (2014). The socialemotional development of dual language learners: Looking back at existing research and moving forward with purpose.Early Childhood Research Quarterly,29(4), 734-749. Hammer, C. S., Hoff, E., Uchikoshi, Y., Gillanders, C., Castro, D. C., Sandilos, L. E. (2014). The language and literacy development of young dual language learners: A critical review.Early Childhood Research Quarterly,29(4), 715-733. Hoffnung, Michele, et al. Lifespan development (3rd Australasian ed.), John Wiley Sons, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central Sansavini, A., Pentimonti, J., Justice, L., Guarini, A., Savini, S., Alessandroni, R., Faldella, G. (2014). Language, motor and cognitive development of extremely preterm children: Modeling individual growth trajectories over the first three years of life.Journal of communication disorders,49, 55-68. Winsler, A., Burchinal, M. R., Tien, H. C., Peisner-Feinberg, E., Espinosa, L., Castro, D. C., ... De Feyter, J. (2014). Early development among dual language learners: The roles of language use at home, maternal immigration, country of origin, and socio-demographic variables.Early Childhood Research Quarterly,29(4), 750-764.

Jeremy Bentham Criminal Justice free essay sample

Jeremy Benthams Influence on the Criminal Justice System: Past and Present The delivery of punishment has changed significantly over the centuries. Up until the 19th century in England, imprisonment was not regarded as a punishment, it was merely used while the offender waited to be sentenced to their real punishment (Bull, 2010; Hirst, 1998). Corporal punishment such as flogging, branding and mutilation, death by hanging, and transportation to other continents such as America and Australia were common punitive measures through the ages, until well into the 1800s (Newburn, 2003). Although these extreme penalties are no longer acceptable or practised by criminal courts in England or Australia, in some ways, the past has shaped delivery of sanction at present. In fact, Australia was founded with Britains intention to send their worst criminal there Oackson, 1998). Theorist Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was particularly influential to the cessation of the controversial tactic of transportation to Australia, and catalysed the beginning of the modern day prison systems (Bull, 2010). We will write a custom essay sample on Jeremy Bentham Criminal Justice or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Bentham was a philosopher who rigorously opposed the transportation of convicts to other continents (Bentham, 1789). He had strong ideals relating to criminals and the best way for them to be punished. Forming the criminological theory of Utilitarianism, Bentham argued that incapacitation, rehabilitation and deterrence were the three pillars essential to fghting crime (Hopkins Burke, 2011). In the course of this essay, Benthams philosophy on punishment and the reasons why he opposed transportation will be discussed. Furthermore, an examination of Benthams specific contribution to the end of transportation and the continued influence his ideas have had on shaping our contemporary punishment practises will be conducted. Benthams understanding of crime and criminals was simple. His perspective classed people as rational beings, whose behaviour is influenced by their perceived pleasure and pain (Brunon-Ernst, 2012). If the perceived pleasure, or positive outcome (for example the thrill of stealing, the acquisition of money) of an action outweighs the perceived pain or displeasure of the consequences (punishment, risk of injury), the person may be inclined to do it (Brunon-Ernst, 2012). In other words, a person may be tempted to commit a crime if there not a strong enough deterrent in place. Hence, Benthams solution to crime control was to address this pleasure/pain response by imposing strict penalties proportional to the seriousness of the crime committed to discourage people from offending (Von Hirsch, 1992). Although he did not support the death penalty, punishment for committing crime was considered by Bentham as the lesser of two evils, necessary for the health of society and the duty of the government to impose (Bull, 2010; Hudson, 2003). Punishment, for Bentham, was a way to ensure the greatest happiness for the greatest number (Rosen, 2003, p 221). Bentham rgued that prevention, both general and specific, is paramount in controlling crime. The imprisonment of the offender serves the purpose of specific prevention. Specific prevention involves three tiers: incapacitation, reform/rehabilitation and deterrence (Hopkins Burke, 2011). Firstly, incapacitation is achieved by physically removing an offender from society, rendering them unable to reoffend (specifically, by placing them in prison). Secondly, rehabilitation seeks to take away t e esire o ottend teaching the offender that any wrongdoing against society will certainly result in real unishment (Bentham suggested strenuous and repetitive labour and solitary confinement). Finally, and most importantly, deterrence is reached by making the offender afraid to reoffend because of the inevitable consequences of the action (namely, returning to the conditions of prison [Von Hirsch, 1998]). Additionally, Bentham conceded that the prison ought to be open for the public to observe as a means of general prevention (Hopkins Burke, 2011). Prisoners would be made an example of in order to deter potential offenders from committing the same crimes: it ould be known to all that if one were to commit a crime, they would endure to the same fate. Transportation did not align with Benthams perspective regarding the solution to crime (Rosen, 2003). He argued that sending offenders toa far away place would not deter anyone from offending or reoffending. In short, Australia contained an uncertain fate for those sentenced to transportation (Bull, 2010). If and when the offender survived the long and treacherous Journey across the ocean from England to Australia, they were awarded far more freedom and independence than Bentham thought they deserved. Bentham argued that offenders would not be deterred from committing crime if the consequences were not strict, certain and undesirable (Bull, 2010). Furthermore, the lack of public exposure of the consequences of crime failed to meet Benthams guidelines for general prevention, if they were to be implemented overseas. Overall, Bentham considered transportation as a punishment to be markedly inferior to imprisonment Oackson, 1998). Instead, he recommended that offenders be kept under surveillance in a prison which he designed, called the panopticon Oackson, 1998). Brunon-Ernst (2012, p. ) described the panopticon as a circular building with a central tower from which an inspector can see the inmates at all times without being seen. With this design, inmates would not know when they were being watched, therefore, it would encourage them to behave at all times (Rosen, 2003). Bentham used Englands previous history of transporting convicts to America as a platform to argue against penal transportation to Australia (Bull, 2010). After gaining independence following the Revolution in the 1770s, America refused to accept any more convicts from England (Maxwell-Stewart, 2010). England was required to find another penal solution, and considered New South Wales, Australia, to be the perfect location. It was at this time that Bentham urged the government to follow his suggestion to build the panopticon instead (Semple, 1993). However, despite the support Bentham received for his ideas, transportation did not cease during his lifetime, with the final convicts landing in Australia in 1870 (Maxwell- Stewart, 2010). Nevertheless, it was Benthams ideas and his theory of utility which lead the reform to stop the transportation era (Bull, 2010). The lasting effects of he utilitarian theory can still be observed in the criminal Justice arena today (White, Haines Asquith, 2012). Utilitarianism laid the foundations for the classical movement which drastically influenced modern day penal processes and criminological thought. Classical theory closely resembles the theory of utility: free will and choice are a major contributors to the commission of crime (presently reflected by the notion of mens rea [the guilty mind]); criminals must be punished; sanction ought to act as a deterrent; and the prevention of crime is more important than than punishment (Vold Bernard, 1985; Von Hirsch, 1998). Concurrent with Benthams ideals, proportionality is reflected in present day criminal sanctions in order to have the most effect. A modern day example of this includes the Just deserts approach to sentencing, which proposes a few simple principles (as outlined by White, Haines Asquith, 2012): no one, other than the person found guilty of a crime, should be punished for that crime; a person found guilty of a crime must be punished for it; punishment must be proportional to the seriousness of the crime (no more, and no less serious than the crime itself). The Just deserts approach intends to provide structure and consistency to the sentencing process, consequently, it is employed by criminal Justice systems all over the Western world, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States (White, Haines Asquith, 2012). In summary, Jeremy Bentham had a profound effect on the criminal Justice system as we know it. Leading the reform which stopped the transportation of British criminals to Australia in the 19th century, Bentham also campaigned for long term incarceration to replace capital punishment. Jeremy Bentham Criminal Justice free essay sample The delivery of punishment has changed significantly over the centuries. Up until the 19th century in England, imprisonment was not regarded as a punishment, it was merely used while the offender waited to be sentenced to their ‘real’ punishment (Bull, 2010; Hirst, 1998). Corporal punishment such as flogging, branding and mutilation, death by hanging, and transportation to other continents such as America and Australia were common punitive measures through the ages, until well into the 1800’s (Newburn, 2003). Although these extreme penalties are no longer acceptable or practised by criminal courts in England or Australia, in some ways, the past has shaped delivery of sanction at present. In fact, Australia was founded with Britain’s intention to send their worst criminal there (Jackson, 1998). Theorist Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was particularly influential to the cessation of the controversial tactic of transportation to Australia, and catalysed the beginning of the modern day prison systems (Bull, 2010). Bentham was a philosopher who rigorously opposed the transportation of convicts to other continents (Bentham, 1789). We will write a custom essay sample on Jeremy Bentham Criminal Justice or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He had strong ideals relating to criminals and the best way for them to be punished. Forming the criminological theory of Utilitarianism, Bentham argued that incapacitation, rehabilitation and deterrence were the three pillars essential to fighting crime (Hopkins Burke, 2011). In the course of this essay, Bentham’s philosophy on punishment and the reasons why he opposed transportation will be discussed. Furthermore, an examination of Bentham’s specific contribution to the end of transportation and the continued influence his ideas have had on shaping our contemporary punishment practises will be conducted. Bentham’s understanding of crime and criminals was simple. His perspective classed people as rational beings, whose behaviour is influenced by their perceived pleasure and pain (Brunon-Ernst, 2012). If the perceived pleasure, or positive outcome (for example the thrill of stealing, the acquisition of money) of an action outweighs the perceived pain or displeasure of the consequences (punishment, risk of injury), the person may be inclined to do it (Brunon-Ernst, 2012). In other words, a person may be tempted to commit a crime if there not a strong enough deterrent in place. Hence, Bentham’s solution to crime control was to address this pleasure/pain response by imposing strict penalties proportional to the seriousness of the crime committed to discourage people from offending (Von Hirsch, 1992). Although he did not support the death penalty, punishment for committing crime was considered by Bentham as the lesser of two evils, necessary for the health of society and the duty of the government to impose (Bull, 2010; Hudson, 2003). Punishment, for Bentham, was a way to ensure â€Å"the greatest happiness for the greatest number† (Rosen, 2003, p 221). Bentham argued that prevention, both general and specific, is paramount in controlling crime. The imprisonment of the offender serves the purpose of specific prevention. Specific prevention involves three tiers: incapacitation, reform/rehabilitation and deterrence (Hopkins Burke, 2011). Firstly, incapacitation is achieved by physically removing an offender from society, rendering them unable to reoffend (specifically, by placing them in prison). Secondly, rehabilitation seeks to take away the desire to offend, by teaching the offender that any wrongdoing against society will certainly result in real punishment (Bentham suggested strenuous and repetitive labour and solitary confinement). Finally, and most importantly, deterrence is reached by making the offender afraid to reoffend because of the inevitable consequences of the action (namely, returning to the conditions of prison [Von Hirsch, 1998]). Additionally, Bentham conceded that the prison ought to be open for the public to observe as a means of general prevention (Hopkins Burke, 2011). Prisoners would be made an example of in order to deter potential offenders from committing the same crimes: it would be known to all that if one were to commit a crime, they would endure to the same fate. Transportation did not align with Bentham’s perspective regarding the solution to crime (Rosen, 2003). He argued that sending offenders to a far away place would not deter anyone from offending or reoffending. In short, Australia contained an uncertain fate for those sentenced to transportation (Bull, 2010). If and when the offender survived the long and treacherous journey across the ocean from England to Australia, they were awarded far more freedom and independence than Bentham thought they deserved. Bentham argued that offenders would not be deterred from committing crime if the consequences were not strict, certain and undesirable (Bull, 2010). Furthermore, the lack of public exposure of the consequences of crime failed to meet Bentham’s guidelines for general prevention, if they were to be implemented overseas. Overall, Bentham considered transportation as a punishment to be markedly inferior to imprisonment (Jackson, 1998). Instead, he recommended that offenders be kept under surveillance in a prison which he designed, called the panopticon (Jackson, 1998). Brunon-Ernst (2012, p. 8) described the panopticon as â€Å"a circular building with a central tower from which an inspector can see the inmates at all times without being seen†. With this design, inmates would not know when they were being watched, therefore, it would encourage them to behave at all times (Rosen, 2003). Bentham used England’s previous history of transporting convicts to America as a platform to argue against penal transportation to Australia (Bull, 2010). After gaining independence following the Revolution in the 1770’s, America refused to accept any more convicts from England (Maxwell-Stewart, 2010). England was required to find another penal solution, and considered New South Wales, Australia, to be the perfect location. It was at this time that Bentham urged the government to follow his suggestion to build the panopticon instead (Semple, 1993). However, despite the support Bentham received for his ideas, transportation did not cease during his lifetime, with the final convicts landing in Australia in 1870 (Maxwell-Stewart, 2010). Nevertheless, it was Bentham’s ideas and his theory of utility which lead the reform to stop the transportation era (Bull, 2010). The lasting effects of the utilitarian theory can still be observed in the criminal justice arena today (White, Haines Asquith, 2012). Utilitarianism laid the foundations for the classical movement which drastically influenced modern day penal processes and criminological thought. Classical theory closely resembles the theory of utility: free will and choice are a major contributors to the commission of crime (presently reflected by the notion of mens rea [the guilty mind]); criminals must be punished; sanction ought to act as a deterrent; and the prevention of crime is more important than than punishment (Vold Bernard, 1985; Von Hirsch, 1998). Concurrent with Bentham’s ideals, proportionality is reflected in present day criminal sanctions in order to have the most effect. A modern day example of this includes the ‘just deserts’ approach to sentencing, which proposes a few simple principles (as outlined by White, Haines Asquith, 2012): no one, other than the person found guilty of a crime, should be punished for that crime; a person found guilty of a crime must be punished for it; punishment must be proportional to the seriousness of the crime (no more, and no less serious than the crime itself). The ‘just deserts’ approach intends to provide structure and consistency to the sentencing process, consequently, it is employed by criminal justice systems all over the Western world, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States (White, Haines Asquith, 2012). In summary, Jeremy Bentham had a profound effect on the criminal justice system as we know it. Leading the reform which stopped the transportation of British criminals to Australia in the 19th century, Bentham also campaigned for long term incarceration to replace capital punishment. He argued that in order to satisfactorily deter an individual from committing or recommitting an offense, the consequences of such actions must be publicly known and inevitable. His theory of utility was a preamble to the now commonly referred to classical theory, which has given rise to many of the judicial processes in effect today.